• Srivijaya's counter-attacks on Mataram in AD 1006 caused such devastation to the Javanese kingdom that it took some time to recover. Meanwhile, a young leader arose in Java - he was Airlangga. It was under his leadership that Java made a full-scale recovery with the flowering of Indo-Javanese culture. However, before he died in AD 1042, Airlangga divided Java into two areas: Kediri and Janggala.
• In AD 1222, the king of Kediri was killed by a man called Angrok (meaning "he who upsets everything") who established the Singosari Kingdom. It was a short regime but its importance lies in the fact that it produced a great warrior-king, Kertanagara (1268-92) whose expansionist activities not only brought about the downfall of Srivijaya but also laid the foundation of the future imperial power of East Java.

• According to the Javanese 'Pararaton' or 'Book of Kings', Angrok slew the Kediri king and how before his death, a smith had prophesied that 'seven kings shall die by this single sword.'
• The 'Pararaton' was composed after these events happened, but it is true enough that most of the kings of this dynasty came to violent ends, including Kertanagara.

• The early rulers of Singosari established their power in the region by gaining control of the rich spice trade of the region and also by expanding their territory. They conquered Banka Island and also made Ternate, the key Spice Island, their vassal. Singosari thus obtained a virtual monopoly of the spice trade in the Java Sea.

• He was the great warrior-king who was mainly responsible for developing Singosari’s power. He first brought under his control the eastern islands of Madura and Bali. Taking advantage of the weakness of the Srivijayan empire, he sent his forces over to Sumatra and succeeded in occupying the Sunda Straits, parts of coastal Borneo, Melayu, and southern Malaya. At the same time he contested Srivijayan control over the Malacca Straits.

• At this point of time, the armies of the Mongols under the Yuan dynasty in China were setting out on a great conquering spree in the Far East. Korea, Japan, Annam and Burma were among their many victims. "It was the ambitious policy of Singosari Java..... which attracted the hostile attention of the Chinese authorities." (Cady)
• From 1280-89, Kubial Khan sent 3 missions to Java as part of his overall campaign in SEA. His objectives were:

• But Kublai's mission to Java, like in other areas in Southeast Asia, failed. Kertanagara expelled or arrested the Chinese envoys. In the last expedition, the envoys were roughly handled, sent back to China with their faces mutilated.
• Kublai retaliated by despatching an expedition in 1293 to punish Kertanagara. But by that time, Kertanagara was overthrown and killed (1292) by his rival Jayakatwang.

• One of the interesting issues concerning the study of Javanese history is the controversial figure of Kertanagara. Views and opinions about his personality are conflicting:

There are two conflicting views on this:

1. "The Pararaton" or "Book of Kings" portrayed Kertanagara as a drunkard, brought to ruin by inordinate indulgence in lust. His reign was seen as a short and inconspicuous one.

2. The "Nagarakertagama" (A Poem)

This poem was written by Prapatica, a Buddhist clergy. It portrayed Kertanagara as a fine scholar, a saint, free from all passion. His reign was seen as much longer, until 1292 and full of achievements.

While the 2 views are in direct contrast to each other, one thing is certain:

• Kertanagara was a great king, remarkable for his ardour in extending Javanese authority over the neighbouring countries and his zeal in practising a form of Tantric Buddhism. This form of Buddhism originated in Bengal, then spread to Tibet, Nepal and finally, SEA. It reached its culmination in Java, seen in the worship of Siva-Bhairava and the cult of Siva-Buddha

• According to Prof Krom, the answer is "Yes". Krom accepted the longer reign attributed to the king by the "Nagarakertagama." He pointed out that in 1275 Kertanagara sent a great expedition known as "Pamalayu" to begin the subjugation of Sumatra. It did not return until 1293, the year after his death. By 1286, the conquest had gone so well that he sent a replica of the image of his father Vishnuvardhana at Chandi Djago to be solemnly installed at Dharmasraya in the Kingdom of Melayu in order to ensure contact between that Kingdom as his vassal state and his dynasty through the cult of ancestorworship. Kertanagara therefore had plans, since his accession in 1268, to make his kingdom a great Indonesian power. Therefore, in 1275, he sent the Pamalayu expedition.
• However, Prof Berg disagreed. He explains that Kertanagara was a "Misunderstood Empire-Builder". He says that there is no evidence that Kertanagara sent the Pamalayu expedition in 1275. Instead, 1275 was the year Kertanagara was consecrated for the pursuit of an imperialist programme, the crowning achievement of which, was ultimately Srivijaya. Berg thus formulates the hypothesis that the expedition did not actually leave Java until 17 years later, i.e. in 1292, the year of Kertanagara's death. The imperialism of Singosari was due to an external cause - fear of the Mongols - and not a revival of an earlier Javanese imperialism.
• Berg further explains that Kertanagara's plan was to build a sacred Indonesian Confederacy and mobilise its strength against the Mongols by means of his magical powers as a Bhairava-Buddha. Hence, the conquests of Madura, Bali (1284), Sunda (1289 or 1290), and later Melayu - were in effect "spiritual" conquests, to establish a Holy Alliance and not conquests by force of arms.
• According to Berg again, as a result of Mongol invasion, Kertanagara's great expedition of 1292 had to return home the following year (1293). Kertanagara's efforts were therefore in vain - Singosari failed to unite Nusantara. The task had to be undertaken by Majapahit.